By: Bill Burdick and Deep Datta
Re-posted from: https://info.juliahub.com/blog/policies-private-registry-solutions
We recently published a blog about private registries and package management on JuliaHub. We are following up on that blog to announce additional capabilities now available on JuliaHub. Those include the official release of our Package Analytics feature as well as the upcoming new feature we call Package Policies.
By: Steven Whitaker
Re-posted from: https://glcs.hashnode.dev/multiple-dispatch
Julia is a relatively new,free, and open-source programming language.It has a syntaxsimilar to that of other popular programming languagessuch as MATLAB and Python,but it boasts being able to achieve C-like speeds.
One of the core design philosophies of Juliathat distinguishes itfrom a lot of other languagesis multiple dispatch.In essence,multiple dispatch allowswriting multiple implementationsof a single functionbased on different input types.But unlike single dispatchwhich relies on the static, compile-time typesof all but one of the inputs,multiple dispatch chooses what implementation to callusing the runtime types.
It makes writing generic code a cinch,allowing packages to work together seamlesslyand enabling a high degree of composability.
In this post,we will learn aboutmultiple dispatchin Julia.We will discuss how to utilize itand how it compares to single dispatch,typically usedin object-oriented languages.
This post assumes you already havea basic understandingof Julia’s type system.If you haven’t yet,check out our earlierpost to learn more.
To understand multiple dispatch,we first need to understandthe difference between functions and methods.
In Julia,a function essentially is just a name.This name is used to refer to the functionand to call the function.What a function does when calledis determined by the methodsassociated with the function.A method is an implementationof a functionfor a given set of input types.
Let’s illustrate this concept with code.
First, we will define a functionwith no methods,just to show that it can be done:
julia> function no_methods endno_methods (generic function with 0 methods)When declaring a function, however,we typically also define an associated method:
julia> function func(x, y) # Method 1 x + y endfunc (generic function with 1 method)Here,we created the function funcand defined a methodthat adds the two function inputs.Call this method 1.
Now let’s add another method,method 2.To do so,we need to provide type annotationsto the input variables:
julia> function func(x::String, y::String) # Method 2 x * y endfunc (generic function with 2 methods)Notice that we didn’t createa new function with one method.Because we used the same function name,we added a method to the already existing function.
Let’s add one more method,method 3:
julia> function func(x::String, y::Integer) # Method 3 x^y endfunc (generic function with 3 methods)Methods can also have different numbers of arguments.The previous methods all had two arguments,so let’s create a method with three arguments,method 4:
julia> function func(x::String, y::Integer, z::Integer) # Method 4 func(x, y)[1:z] endfunc (generic function with 4 methods)Now let’s see multiple dispatch in action.
When func is called,Julia uses the types of the input argumentsto determine which method to dispatch to.In particular,the input types of multiple arguments(actually, all of them)are considered,hence the name multiple dispatch.If the types of the inputsmatch one of the method signatures,that method will be called.
But what about func("hi", "there")?In this case,both inputs are Strings,so that matches method 2.But String is a subtype of Any,so the inputs also match method 1!In cases like thiswhere multiple methods match,the most specific method will be called.So, in this case,func("hi", "there") will dispatch to method 2because String is a more specific type than Any.
If no methods matchor if there is not one single most specific method,a MethodError will be thrown.
So,the methods we defined for funcwill be called in the following cases:
Method 1:When two inputs are givenand no more specific methods exist.Examples:
julia> func(1, 2)3julia> func([3, 4], [5, 6])2-element Vector{Int64}: 8 10String inputs are given.Example:
julia> func("hi ", "there")"hi there"Method 3:When two inputs are given:first a String and then an Integer.(Remember, though, that abstract types,like Integer,cannot be instantiated,so when we say the second input is an Integer,we really mean it is of a typethat is a subtype of Integer.In other words,y isa Integer must evaluate to true.)Examples:
julia> func("eat ", 3)"eat eat eat "julia> func("speak ", UInt32(2))"speak speak "Method 4:When three inputs are given:first a String, then an Integer,and then another Integer.(Note that y and zdo not have to be of the same type,i.e., y could be an Int64,while z could be a Bool.)Examples:
julia> func("repeat", 5, 6)"repeat"julia> func("first letter", 1, true)"f"Now, you may be thinkingthat this just looks like method overloading.And you would be correctthat the above exampleshaven’t really demonstratedthe power of multiple dispatch.So,let’s compare multiple dispatchto single dispatch.
Having many method definitionsis also possiblewith single dispatch.However,with single dispatch,the compile-time types of the inputs(except the first)are used to decide which method to call.
Single dispatch uses the runtime typeof just the first function argument,while multiple dispatch uses the runtime typesof all the function arguments.
Consider the following Java example:
abstract public class A{ public void func(A a) { System.out.println("Method AA"); }}public class B extends A{ public void func(A a) { System.out.println("Method BA"); } public void func(B b) { System.out.println("Method BB"); }}public class Main{ public static void main(String[] args) { A ab = new B(); B b = new B(); ab.func(ab); // Method BA b.func(b); // Method BB }}In this example,even though both ab and bare instantiated as B objects,b.func(ab) prints Method BA,whereas b.func(b) prints Method BB.This difference is becauseab and b have different compile-time types(also called declared or static types):ab is of type A,whereas b is of type B.
Now let’s compare this to Julia:
# From package PkgA.jlabstract type A endfunc(a1::A, a2::A) = println("Method AA")# From package PkgB.jlimport PkgA: A, funcstruct B <: A end # `B <: A` means `B` is a subtype of `A`func(b::B, a::A) = println("Method BA")func(b1::B, b2::B) = println("Method BB")# In the REPL or in a .jl fileusing PkgA, PkgBab::A = B()b::B = B()func(ab, ab) # Method BBfunc(b, b) # Method BBIn this case,both func(ab, ab) and func(b, b) print Method BB,despite annotating ab to be of type A,because both ab and bare of type B at runtime.
Again,multiple dispatch uses the runtime typesof all input argumentsto determine the method to call.
One of the main resulting benefitsis that composability is easy in Julia.
Composability is the abilityto use different pieces of code togetherto provide new functionality.
First,we will see an instancewhere composability is difficult to achieve.
Let’s add to our Java example.We will add a class Cthat depends on Abut is independent of B:
public class C{ public static void run(A a1, A a2) { a1.func(a2); }}And we will add the following lines to main:
C.run(ab, ab); // Method BAC.run(b, b); // Method BA - `C.run` cannot call Method BB!Notice that,even though b has a runtime type of B,C.run(b, b) sill prints out Method BA.This is because in class C,the static typeof the second input to run is A, not B.There are two ways to get run to print out Method BB:
C changes their codeto add better support for using objects of type B,e.g., by adding additional methods to run.Main reimplements runto take into account the existence of class B.In either case,code needs to be modifiedfor class B and class Cto compose well.That’s not ideal for composability.
Now let’s see how this works out in Julia.Suppose someone writes a package PkgC.jlthat contains the following:
using PkgArun(a1::A, a2::A) = func(a1, a2)Then we can update our example:
# In the REPL or in a .jl fileusing PkgA, PkgB, PkgCab::A = B()b::B = B()PkgC.run(ab, ab) # Method BBPkgC.run(b, b) # Method BBNotice that PkgC.run(b, b) prints Method BB,even though PkgC.jlknows nothing about PkgB.jl!No code changes were necessaryfor PkgB.jl and PkgC.jl to compose.That’s the power of multiple dispatch!
Now we will discuss various additional aspectsof multiple dispatch in Julia.
Previously,we saw that the methodfunc(x::String, y::Integer, z::Integer)allowed y and z to be of different types(as long as both were Integers).
What if we want a methodwhere y and z need to beof the same type?We can do soby introducing a type parameter:
julia> function func(x::String, y::T, z::T) where T<:Integer # Method 5 println(x, ": y and z are both of type ", T) endfunc (generic function with 5 methods)julia> func("welcome", 1, true) # Calls method 4"w"julia> func("welcome", 1, 1) # Calls method 5welcome: y and z are both of type Int64This new method will be calledwhen y and z are both Integersof the same type.
Type parameters are also usefulfor constraining the typescontained in container types.For example,suppose we want a methodthat operates on an Arraythat contains only real numbers.The following method signatureaccomplishes this:
another_func(a::Array{T}) where T<:RealIf T isn’t used anywhere else,the following method signatureworks as well:
another_func(a::Array{<:Real})When adding different methods,it’s possible to introducemethod ambiguities,where, for a given set of input types,there is no single most specific method.
Recall that method 3 of funchad the following method signature:
func(x::String, y::Integer)Adding the following methodwill introduce a method ambiguitywhen calling funcwith a String and an Int:
julia> function func(x, y::Int) println(x, ": ", y) endfunc (generic function with 6 methods)julia> func("hello", 2)ERROR: MethodError: func(::String, ::Int64) is ambiguous.Candidates: func(x::String, y::Integer) @ Main REPL[4]:1 func(x, y::Int64) @ Main REPL[16]:1Possible fix, define func(::String, ::Int64)Notice the list of candidate methodsin the error message;neither is more specific than the other.
String is more specific than Any,so the first method is more specific.Int64 is more specific than Integer,so the second method is more specific.
To overcome this issue,either remove one of the offending methodsor add the method suggestedin the error message.
Another thing to be careful aboutwhen defining methodsis type piracy.Type piracy occurs whenyou add a method to a functionthat isn’t yours(i.e., that you didn’t originally define)using types that aren’t yours.
For example,defining simple_func(x::String)is fine because simple_funcis a new function,so it’s fine to use String,a type that we didn’t define,in the method signature.
Similarly,defining Base.sum(x::MyNewType)is fine because we defined(in this hypothetical scenario)MyNewType ourselves,so it’s fine to add this methodto Julia’s sum function.
But what’s wrong with adding a method likeBase.sum(x::Array)?The problem occurs when someone elsetries to use your code.If they call sum on any Arrays,your new method will be calledinstead of Julia’s built-in sum!That’s a nasty bug waiting to happen.
(If you want to live on the edge,try definingBase.:+(a::Int, b::Int) = error("pirate invasion")and then watch as Julia crashes fantastically.It turns out that being ableto correctly add two integersis necessary for Julia to work properly!)
In this post,we learned aboutmultiple dispatchin Julia.We discussed how to utilize itand how it compares to single dispatch,typically usedin object-oriented languages.
Do you have any further questionsabout multiple dispatch?Let us know in the comments below!
Want to learn more about Julia?Move on to thenext post to learn about modules and variable scope!Or,feel free to take a lookat out other Julia tutorial posts!
Re-posted from: https://blog.glcs.io/multiple-dispatch
Julia is a relatively new,
free, and open-source programming language.
It has a syntax
similar to that of other popular programming languages
such as MATLAB and Python,
but it boasts being able to achieve C-like speeds.
One of the core design philosophies of Julia
that distinguishes it
from a lot of other languages
is multiple dispatch.
In essence,
multiple dispatch allows
writing multiple implementations
of a single function
based on different input types.
But unlike single dispatch
which relies on the static, compile-time types
of all but one of the inputs,
multiple dispatch chooses what implementation to call
using the runtime types.
It makes writing generic code a cinch,
allowing packages to work together seamlessly
and enabling a high degree of composability.
In this post,
we will learn about
multiple dispatch
in Julia.
We will discuss how to utilize it
and how it compares to single dispatch,
typically used
in object-oriented languages.
This post assumes you already have
a basic understanding
of Julia’s type system.
If you haven’t yet,
check out our earlier
post to learn more.
To understand multiple dispatch,
we first need to understand
the difference between functions and methods.
In Julia,
a function essentially is just a name.
This name is used to refer to the function
and to call the function.
What a function does when called
is determined by the methods
associated with the function.
A method is an implementation
of a function
for a given set of input types.
Let’s illustrate this concept with code.
First, we will define a function
with no methods,
just to show that it can be done:
julia> function no_methods end
no_methods (generic function with 0 methods)
When declaring a function, however,
we typically also define an associated method:
julia> function func(x, y) # Method 1
x + y
end
func (generic function with 1 method)
Here,
we created the function func
and defined a method
that adds the two function inputs.
Call this method 1.
Now let’s add another method,
method 2.
To do so,
we need to provide type annotations
to the input variables:
julia> function func(x::String, y::String) # Method 2
x * y
end
func (generic function with 2 methods)
Notice that we didn’t create
a new function with one method.
Because we used the same function name,
we added a method to the already existing function.
Let’s add one more method,
method 3:
julia> function func(x::String, y::Integer) # Method 3
x^y
end
func (generic function with 3 methods)
Methods can also have different numbers of arguments.
The previous methods all had two arguments,
so let’s create a method with three arguments,
method 4:
julia> function func(x::String, y::Integer, z::Integer) # Method 4
func(x, y)[1:z]
end
func (generic function with 4 methods)
Now let’s see multiple dispatch in action.
When func is called,
Julia uses the types of the input arguments
to determine which method to dispatch to.
In particular,
the input types of multiple arguments
(actually, all of them)
are considered,
hence the name multiple dispatch.
If the types of the inputs
match one of the method signatures,
that method will be called.
But what about func("hi", "there")?
In this case,
both inputs are Strings,
so that matches method 2.
But String is a subtype of Any,
so the inputs also match method 1!
In cases like this
where multiple methods match,
the most specific method will be called.
So, in this case,
func("hi", "there") will dispatch to method 2
because String is a more specific type than Any.
If no methods match
or if there is not one single most specific method,
a MethodError will be thrown.
So,
the methods we defined for func
will be called in the following cases:
Method 1:
When two inputs are given
and no more specific methods exist.
Examples:
julia> func(1, 2)
3
julia> func([3, 4], [5, 6])
2-element Vector{Int64}:
8
10
String inputs are given.julia> func("hi ", "there")
"hi there"
Method 3:
When two inputs are given:
first a String and then an Integer.
(Remember, though, that abstract types,
like Integer,
cannot be instantiated,
so when we say the second input is an Integer,
we really mean it is of a type
that is a subtype of Integer.
In other words,
y isa Integer must evaluate to true.)
Examples:
julia> func("eat ", 3)
"eat eat eat "
julia> func("speak ", UInt32(2))
"speak speak "
Method 4:
When three inputs are given:
first a String, then an Integer,
and then another Integer.
(Note that y and z
do not have to be of the same type,
i.e., y could be an Int64,
while z could be a Bool.)
Examples:
julia> func("repeat", 5, 6)
"repeat"
julia> func("first letter", 1, true)
"f"
Now, you may be thinking
that this just looks like method overloading.
And you would be correct
that the above examples
haven’t really demonstrated
the power of multiple dispatch.
So,
let’s compare multiple dispatch
to single dispatch.
Having many method definitions
is also possible
with single dispatch.
However,
with single dispatch,
the compile-time types of the inputs
(except the first)
are used to decide which method to call.
Single dispatch uses the runtime type
of just the first function argument,
while multiple dispatch uses the runtime types
of all the function arguments.
Consider the following Java example:
abstract public class A
{
public void func(A a)
{
System.out.println("Method AA");
}
}
public class B extends A
{
public void func(A a)
{
System.out.println("Method BA");
}
public void func(B b)
{
System.out.println("Method BB");
}
}
public class Main
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
A ab = new B();
B b = new B();
ab.func(ab); // Method BA
b.func(b); // Method BB
}
}
In this example,
even though both ab and b
are instantiated as B objects,
b.func(ab) prints Method BA,
whereas b.func(b) prints Method BB.
This difference is because
ab and b have different compile-time types
(also called declared or static types):
ab is of type A,
whereas b is of type B.
Now let’s compare this to Julia:
# From package PkgA.jl
abstract type A end
func(a1::A, a2::A) = println("Method AA")
# From package PkgB.jl
import PkgA: A, func
struct B <: A end # `B <: A` means `B` is a subtype of `A`
func(b::B, a::A) = println("Method BA")
func(b1::B, b2::B) = println("Method BB")
# In the REPL or in a .jl file
using PkgA, PkgB
ab::A = B()
b::B = B()
func(ab, ab) # Method BB
func(b, b) # Method BB
In this case,
both func(ab, ab) and func(b, b) print Method BB,
despite annotating ab to be of type A,
because both ab and b
are of type B at runtime.
Again,
multiple dispatch uses the runtime types
of all input arguments
to determine the method to call.
One of the main resulting benefits
is that composability is easy in Julia.
Composability is the ability
to use different pieces of code together
to provide new functionality.
First,
we will see an instance
where composability is difficult to achieve.
Let’s add to our Java example.
We will add a class C
that depends on A
but is independent of B:
public class C
{
public static void run(A a1, A a2)
{
a1.func(a2);
}
}
And we will add the following lines to main:
C.run(ab, ab); // Method BA
C.run(b, b); // Method BA - `C.run` cannot call Method BB!
Notice that,
even though b has a runtime type of B,
C.run(b, b) sill prints out Method BA.
This is because in class C,
the static type
of the second input to run is A, not B.
There are two ways to get run to print out Method BB:
C changes their codeB,run.Main reimplements runB.In either case,
code needs to be modified
for class B and class C
to compose well.
That’s not ideal for composability.
Now let’s see how this works out in Julia.
Suppose someone writes a package PkgC.jl
that contains the following:
using PkgA
run(a1::A, a2::A) = func(a1, a2)
Then we can update our example:
# In the REPL or in a .jl file
using PkgA, PkgB, PkgC
ab::A = B()
b::B = B()
PkgC.run(ab, ab) # Method BB
PkgC.run(b, b) # Method BB
Notice that PkgC.run(b, b) prints Method BB,
even though PkgC.jl
knows nothing about PkgB.jl!
No code changes were necessary
for PkgB.jl and PkgC.jl to compose.
That’s the power of multiple dispatch!
Now we will discuss various additional aspects
of multiple dispatch in Julia.
Previously,
we saw that the method
func(x::String, y::Integer, z::Integer)
allowed y and z to be of different types
(as long as both were Integers).
What if we want a method
where y and z need to be
of the same type?
We can do so
by introducing a type parameter:
julia> function func(x::String, y::T, z::T) where T<:Integer # Method 5
println(x, ": y and z are both of type ", T)
end
func (generic function with 5 methods)
julia> func("welcome", 1, true) # Calls method 4
"w"
julia> func("welcome", 1, 1) # Calls method 5
welcome: y and z are both of type Int64
This new method will be called
when y and z are both Integers
of the same type.
Type parameters are also useful
for constraining the types
contained in container types.
For example,
suppose we want a method
that operates on an Array
that contains only real numbers.
The following method signature
accomplishes this:
another_func(a::Array{T}) where T<:Real
If T isn’t used anywhere else,
the following method signature
works as well:
another_func(a::Array{<:Real})
When adding different methods,
it’s possible to introduce
method ambiguities,
where, for a given set of input types,
there is no single most specific method.
Recall that method 3 of func
had the following method signature:
func(x::String, y::Integer)
Adding the following method
will introduce a method ambiguity
when calling func
with a String and an Int:
julia> function func(x, y::Int)
println(x, ": ", y)
end
func (generic function with 6 methods)
julia> func("hello", 2)
ERROR: MethodError: func(::String, ::Int64) is ambiguous.
Candidates:
func(x::String, y::Integer)
@ Main REPL[4]:1
func(x, y::Int64)
@ Main REPL[16]:1
Possible fix, define
func(::String, ::Int64)
Notice the list of candidate methods
in the error message;
neither is more specific than the other.
String is more specific than Any,Int64 is more specific than Integer,
To overcome this issue,
either remove one of the offending methods
or add the method suggested
in the error message.
Another thing to be careful about
when defining methods
is type piracy.
Type piracy occurs when
you add a method to a function
that isn’t yours
(i.e., that you didn’t originally define)
using types that aren’t yours.
For example,
defining simple_func(x::String)
is fine because simple_func
is a new function,
so it’s fine to use String,
a type that we didn’t define,
in the method signature.
Similarly,
defining Base.sum(x::MyNewType)
is fine because we defined
(in this hypothetical scenario)
MyNewType ourselves,
so it’s fine to add this method
to Julia’s sum function.
But what’s wrong with adding a method like
Base.sum(x::Array)?
The problem occurs when someone else
tries to use your code.
If they call sum on any Arrays,
your new method will be called
instead of Julia’s built-in sum!
That’s a nasty bug waiting to happen.
(If you want to live on the edge,
try defining
Base.:+(a::Int, b::Int) = error("pirate invasion")
and then watch as Julia crashes fantastically.
It turns out that being able
to correctly add two integers
is necessary for Julia to work properly!)
In this post,
we learned about
multiple dispatch
in Julia.
We discussed how to utilize it
and how it compares to single dispatch,
typically used
in object-oriented languages.
Do you have any further questions
about multiple dispatch?
Let us know in the comments below!